Exploring Different Models of Happiness

Happiness is one of the most studied yet most debated concepts in psychology. Is it a feeling, a state of mind, or a way of living? Depending on who you ask – and which psychological model you consult – the answer changes significantly. Rather than settling on one definition, psychologists have built several robust frameworks that capture different dimensions of what it means to truly thrive. Four of the most influential models are Carol Ryff’s Six-Factor Model, Corey Keyes’ Dual Continuum Model, Martin Seligman’s PERMA Model, and Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory. Together, they offer a rich, multi-angled view of human happiness and well-being.

Carol Ryff’s six-factor model of psychological well-being
The six dimensions
Corey Keyes’ dual continuum model
Two continua, not one
Martin Seligman’s PERMA model
The five pillars of PERMA
Self-determination theory: Ryan and Deci
Three basic psychological needs
How these models connect

Carol Ryff’s six-factor model of psychological well-being

Carol Ryff’s model starts with a fundamental challenge to the popular view of happiness: feeling good is not enough. Developed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and first published in 1989, Ryff’s framework draws on Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia – the idea that the goal of life is not to feel good, but to live virtuously and fully. Her model defines psychological well-being as optimal human functioning across six distinct but interconnected dimensions. It is now one of the most cited and empirically tested models in the field.

The six dimensions

Self-acceptance is the foundation: it means holding a positive and realistic view of yourself, acknowledging both strengths and weaknesses without self-deception. Personal growth goes beyond past achievements – it is the ongoing pursuit of learning, new experiences, and expanding one’s potential. Purpose in life refers to having meaningful goals and a sense of direction, a feeling that your existence matters. Environmental mastery is the ability to navigate and manage the external world effectively – shaping your circumstances rather than being controlled by them. Autonomy means making decisions based on your own values rather than bending to social pressure. And positive relations with others involves deep, trusting, and mutually satisfying connections with people around you.

What makes Ryff’s model scientifically significant is that confirmatory factor analyses on a nationally representative sample of over 1,100 adults supported the six-factor structure. Research also shows that people who prioritize intrinsic goals – like intimacy, personal development, and community contribution – score higher on well-being measures, while those focused on wealth, fame, or social image show lower psychological well-being and higher rates of depression and anxiety. The model has since been translated into more than 25 languages and applied in clinical, health, and developmental psychology worldwide.

Corey Keyes’ dual continuum model

For most of the 20th century, mental health was treated as a single spectrum: you either had a mental illness or you didn’t. Corey Keyes, a sociologist and psychologist at Emory University, challenged this assumption with his Dual Continuum Model, first introduced in a landmark 2002 study. His central argument: the absence of mental illness is not the same as the presence of mental health. They are two separate dimensions that must both be assessed.

Two continua, not one

Keyes proposes two distinct continua. The first runs from serious mental illness to no mental illness. The second runs from languishing – a state of low mental well-being marked by emptiness, stagnation, and disengagement – to flourishing, the pinnacle of positive mental health, characterized by vitality, enthusiasm, and strong psychological and social functioning. Crucially, these two axes are related but independent, meaning a person can have no diagnosable mental illness and yet still be languishing. Equally, someone managing a mental health condition may still report moderate or even high well-being.

Keyes assesses well-being across three dimensions: emotional well-being (feelings of happiness and life satisfaction), psychological well-being (drawing on Ryff’s six dimensions), and social well-being (feeling connected, accepted, and contributing to society). Research using this model found that in 1995, only around 17% of American adults met the criteria for flourishing, while over 12% were languishing – without necessarily having a diagnosable disorder. Languishing adults were nearly six times more likely to experience a major depressive episode compared to those who were flourishing. This underscores why promoting positive mental health – not just treating illness – is a critical public health goal.

Martin Seligman’s PERMA model

Martin Seligman, widely considered the father of positive psychology, introduced the PERMA model in his 2011 book Flourish. Where earlier work in positive psychology focused on happiness as a feeling, Seligman’s Well-Being Theory argues that a flourishing life is built on five measurable, independently pursued elements. Each element must contribute to well-being in its own right and be sought for its own sake – not merely as a means to something else.

The five pillars of PERMA

Positive emotions go well beyond happiness – they include joy, gratitude, hope, love, and pride. These emotions broaden our thinking, improve resilience, and support better health outcomes. Engagement refers to the state of flow, the experience of being fully absorbed in an activity to the point where time disappears. This concept, developed by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, represents a form of deep psychological investment that contributes to lasting well-being. Relationships are central to flourishing: as Seligman noted, very little that is positive is solitary. Strong, supportive connections with others amplify every other aspect of well-being. Meaning involves connecting to something larger than oneself – a cause, a community, a spiritual practice, or a sense of purpose that makes the effort worthwhile. Finally, accomplishment is the pursuit of mastery and achievement, even when it doesn’t immediately produce positive emotions. Setting goals, working toward them, and experiencing a sense of progress all feed into long-term well-being.

Empirical studies have confirmed that all five PERMA elements are positively associated with physical health, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and organizational commitment. PERMA has also been applied in schools, workplaces, military settings, and public health policy, making it one of the most practically influential models of happiness to date.

Self-determination theory: Ryan and Deci

While Seligman’s PERMA model focuses on what people pursue, Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT) asks why people pursue anything at all – and what psychological conditions must be met for them to thrive. Developed at the University of Rochester and formally articulated in a landmark 2000 paper in the American Psychologist, SDT proposes that all human beings have three innate, universal psychological needs. When these needs are met, people flourish. When they are chronically blocked, motivation deteriorates and well-being suffers.

Three basic psychological needs

Autonomy is the need to feel that your actions reflect your own values and choices rather than external pressure or coercion. This does not mean independence from others – it means acting with a sense of internal freedom and psychological volition. Competence is the need to feel effective and capable in the things you do – to experience mastery, growth, and a sense that your efforts produce real outcomes. Relatedness is the need to feel meaningfully connected to others, to experience warmth, care, and a sense of belonging within a social group or relationship.

According to SDT research, these three needs are not preferences – they are essential nutrients for psychological health. When all three are satisfied, people demonstrate greater intrinsic motivation, higher well-being, better performance, and more positive social functioning. When they are frustrated – for example, in controlling, unsupportive, or isolating environments – the result is reduced motivation, poorer mental health, and even psychopathology. Importantly, SDT has been validated across numerous cultures and life domains, from education and healthcare to parenting, sport, and organizational management, making it one of the most cross-culturally robust theories of well-being available.

How these models connect

Taken individually, each model offers a unique lens on happiness. But the real value emerges when they are read together. Ryff’s model provides a detailed map of what psychological flourishing looks like from the inside – self-awareness, growth, purpose, mastery, autonomy, and connection. Keyes extends this by showing that well-being is not simply the absence of disorder; it must be actively cultivated, and most people sit somewhere in the middle, neither flourishing nor languishing. Seligman operationalizes flourishing into five actionable elements that individuals, organizations, and governments can measure and promote. Ryan and Deci ground all of this in motivational science, explaining that flourishing depends on environments that support our autonomy, competence, and sense of belonging.

There is also notable convergence across the models. Autonomy appears in both Ryff’s framework and SDT. Positive relationships are central to Ryff, Keyes, Seligman, and SDT alike. Purpose and meaning thread through every model. This consistency across independent research traditions lends considerable weight to the idea that well-being, whatever form it takes, is not accidental – it arises from specific, identifiable psychological conditions that can be understood, measured, and supported.

What do you think? Of the four models discussed – Ryff’s six dimensions, Keyes’ dual continua, Seligman’s PERMA, and Ryan and Deci’s basic needs – which resonates most with your own experience of well-being, and why? And do you think most people around you are truly flourishing, or quietly languishing without being aware of it?

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References

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Table of Contents

Carol Ryff’s six-factor model of psychological well-being 🔗

The six dimensions 🔗

Corey Keyes’ dual continuum model 🔗

Two continua, not one 🔗

Martin Seligman’s PERMA model 🔗

The five pillars of PERMA 🔗

Self-determination theory: Ryan and Deci 🔗

Three basic psychological needs 🔗

How these models connect 🔗